Benefits of Effective Human Resource Management Essay

Benefits of Effective Human Resource Management - Essay Example Zakaria, Zainal and Nasurdin define human resource management as â€Å"a philosophy, policy, system and practices that can affect the behavior, attitudes and performance of employees† (2011, p.77). Durkovic (2009) acknowledges the importance of human resource management noting that organizational success significantly depends on the manner in which human potentials are managed. This implies that managers of human resources have to be equipped with the necessary skills in order to produce the best from the employees despite the challenges involved in managing people. The concept of human resource management Human resource management has undergone significant change in theory, practice and research over the previous decades. The pressure from both the internal and external environments has caused HRM to deviate from its administrative tasks as personnel management to adopting its new role as a root of sustainable competitive advantage in organizations (Durkovic, 2009). Previousl y, the functions of HRM as a key driver of success in an organization were ignored. However, in the modern economic environment, its potential role in enhancing the performance of organizations has been appreciated with its practice improving performance through customer and employee satisfaction, productivity, innovation and developing good reputation in an organization’s community. ... Through scientific selection process, it supplies an organization with skilled workers. Similarly, human resource management prepares workers so that they fit within the changing environment through training and development. It encourages experimentation and innovation so that costs would be reduced and productivity increased. This shows that human resource management plays a key role in an organization and should therefore not be undermined. It relates to all organizational activities including production, marketing and finance among others. Jackson, Schuler and Werner (2012) further observe the importance of human resource management in satisfying various stakeholders in an organization including investors, owners, employees, other organizations and the society at large. The concern in this would be in people as resources and not as factors of production. It encompasses the cycle starting from recruitment to selection, hiring and training so as to develop human assets. Required ski lls Effective human resource management requires one to possess the required skills for appropriate management to ensure that organizational objectives are achieved. The basic skills cited by Jackson, Schuler and Werner (2012) include listening, presentation, communication and leadership skills. Negotiation skills would also be critical in ensuring that these managers recruit the best skills in the market at competitive rates. Due to group dynamics in an organization, human resource management calls for skills in group problem solving so as to ensure harmony among the employees. This would be coupled with the demand for team building skills to ensure that the organization works as a team towards a

Management and Team-working in a Large Organisation Essay

Management and Team-working in a Large Organisation - Essay Example y activity may be utilised to demonstrate the efficacy of these management principles to understand its functioning in the light how transformational leadership can bring about changes in the employees (Jacobs et al. 2006: 211-217). This would thus demonstrate the roles of managers in large organisations and also demonstrate how an employee in the NHS can self-manage him or herself. The overall aim of NHS is directly responsible for providing health services to the population of the United Kingdom. One of the major activities is to oversee the performance of the NHS organizations, primarily Primary Care Trusts and NHS Hospital Trusts. For any organisation of large magnitude, such as, NHS, it is important to achieve financial balance along with achievement of agreed performance targets. These are usually included in the local delivery plans, which may be termed as business plan (McNulty and Ferlie, 2004, 1389-1412). This indicates the necessity of management, and indeed smooth running of the complex functions of the NHS need managers their management skills to be utilised maximally to result into best outputs in terms of service provision and efficiency (Bolton, 2005: 5-23). In this assignment, Gibbs reflective cycle will be used to explore my knowledge on role of managers in my organisation. While doing this, I would also present an account of how I manage myself as an employee. Moreover, this will also demonstrate my abilities to work as a team member and my understanding on the utility and importance of working as a team member. In health care profession, utilization of reflective practice is becoming of paramount importance for continuing professional development. Gibbs cycle reflection comprises of few steps, the first is thought and/or feeling about an incident in practice. This would follow an evaluation about whether it is good or bad. This would follow an analysis to critically evaluate about the incidence. Then a conclusion can be reached through a

Pip and Estella Essay Example for Free

Pip and Estella Essay Chapter 33 opens with Pip again showing how obsessed he is with Estella. He says however, even in my eyes suggesting that he realises that he sees her in a better light than anybody else for example Herbert says in chapter 22: Shes a Tartar. Pip notices a change in her mannerisms in this visit, only the second time the two have met since adulthood. Pip again shows that he knows she is different around him to around other people as he says, cared to let it be to me, he seems to know, or at least believe that she is ruder, more insulting and supercilious in Pips company than that of people in her social circle, or of class. Throughout this chapter and chapter 29, even though both Pip and Estella are adults now, we see the influence of Miss Havisham. Estella blames her actions upon her being made to follow the unknown orders of Miss Havisham; and I write in obedience to it suggests that Estella is otherwise unwilling to have any contact with Pip at all, and she wants him to know this. Estella also says; We have no choice, you and I, but to obey our instructions. We are not free to follow our own devices, you and I. which suggests that she is unhappy. This is interpreted badly by Pip as to mean that she wants more between them than is allowed, whereas she could mean exactly the opposite. Pip recognises however her reluctance and an awkward air of orders being carried out when he says; She drew her arm through mine, as if it must be done As a child Miss Havisham always encouraged Pip to like Estella with influential dialogue such as And never see her again, though she is so pretty? . But it becomes dramatically apparent that Estella wants to discourage Pip from following Miss Havishams encouragements; Will you never take warning? Or do you kiss my hand in the spirit I once let you kiss my cheek? and although she seems to have started off the visit quite mannered and nicer to Pip she soon returns to arrogant and supercilious with lines such as; you must not expect me to go to school to you; I must talk in my own way. which also suggests that she is trying to distance herself from Pip. However she does seem to show a trust and dependence upon Pip when she entrusts him with her purse and although she does so coldly, holds his arm. Is that just a way to lure him? Pip is well aware that she tries to lure him as he says in Chapter 29 She treated me as a boy still, but she lured me on. But even this sense of Estella trying to manipulate Pip as Pip now knows is the plan of Miss Havisham does not dissuade him as he says; It was impossible for me to avoid seeing that she cared to attract me; and that she made herself winning; and would have won me even if the task had needed pains. he obviously knows the intentions of Miss Havisham to wreak revenge on all the male sex when he continues with she held my heart in her hand because it would have wrung any tenderness in her, to crush it and throw it away. In Chapter 33 she calls Pip a silly boy as a derogatory term, echoing earlier episodes when she regularly referred to him, although a peer as boy. Although actually for the first time in the novel she also called him Pip. Is this Estella purposely trying to make Pip think they are closer or their relationship has changed in some way, maybe more intimate than before in the novel. Throughout the chapter Estella remains quite composed and a strong character whilst Pip explicitly hints at his feelings towards Estella and drifts off into daydreams; having forgotten everything but herself, he obviously has stronger feeling towards her than her feeling to him, if she has any at all, which, although hinted at have not been explicitly shown. Even when we do see a hint that Estella does have feelings for Pip, we must also remember that Pip, as narrator, is biased, as wishful thinking possibly. As a very small point, but one that may show a point in the story of importance, Estella says kiss my cheek whereas Pip says kiss the cheek could this be Pip trying to distance himself from Estella, show a hardening to her temptations? Pip says; Her reverting to this tone as if our association were forced upon us gave me pain Whatever her tone with me happened to be, I could put no trust in it, and build no hope on it; which tells the reader that he is hardening to her effects, but Pip obviously adores her too much when he continues; I went on against trust and hope continuing the idea that he does not just love her, but has become obsessed by Estella. However, it is made explicitly obvious that she can certainly live without Pip and intends to do so. But she continues to, obvious to the reader if not to Pip, encourage his beliefs of her mutual feelings when she says indeed you are already mentioned which suggests to Pip that he is considered by Estella often, although we do not know who mentioned Pip, as it could just be the plans of Miss Havisham for Pip to visit. If the reader views Estella as completely manipulative and heartless, then this being the first time in the novel that she calls Pip by his name could be seen as Estella trying to drag Pip further into her net and Pip realise this, although he still continues to let it work. Chapter 33 is a key point where Pip realises Estellas true intentions, or at least begins to see through her plans. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Great Expectations section.

Herzberg S Two Factor Theory Tourism Essay

Herzberg S Two Factor Theory Tourism Essay It is commonly known that all Human Beings have needs. Daft (2008) defines needs as things that individuals want and work for to achieve. Kotler (2005) points out that an unsatisfied need creates tension which kindle the desire to achieve an outcome that seems to be attractive. Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory shows that there is a huge gap between the things that create dissatisfaction and the things that pertain satisfaction (Daft 2008). Furthermore, Herzberg found that satisfaction is not the opposite of dissatisfaction, but no satisfaction (Kotler, 2005). The Hygiene Factors are things that are expected by a human being and influence the level of dissatisfaction. If those factors are poor or absent, a human being is dissatisfied (Herzberg 1968 in Mead 2005). If those factors are good, on the other hand, they remove the dissatisfaction but do not create satisfaction. The Motivators however, create satisfaction if they are good, but do not create dissatisfaction when they are poor. The level that lies between the Hygiene Factors and the Motivators creates neither satisfaction nor dissatisfaction (Herzberg 1968 in Daft 2008). Applied to the Tourism Industry Hygiene Factors could be a safe environment, a clean Hotel room, friendly staff etc., whereas Motivators could be an unexpected upgrade, free wireless lan and over average security and safety precautions. Abraham H. Maslow first published his Theory of Needs in 1954. He points out that there are multiple needs that motivate human beings and they exist in a hierarchical order, from the least to the most pressing (Kotler et. al, 2006). He categorized needs in five categories which are physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs. Those needs act as motivators in order to drive humans (Eckermann). The physiological needs include the needs for food, water, rest and oxygen (Daft 2008) whereas the safety needs represents the need for security in the physical and emotional environment, protection from physical and emotional harm as well as the freedom from threats (Robbins DeCenzo, 2005). Social needs, however, are the needs for giving and receiving love, belong somewhere, and get affection. Daft (2008) adds that people need to be accepted by others, have friendships and relationships, and to be part of a group. Furthermore, the Esteems needs, which are also called as Ego Needs, include self-respect and the esteem from others. Additionally, there is need for attention, a positive self-image, recognition and appreciation from others (Daft 2005). The need for Self-Actualization is the need for achieving challenging tasks and to be creative (Halepota, Eckermann ). A human desires to develop its full potential, increase competence, and to become and be a better person (Daft 2008). Cartwright (2000) suggests a sixth need level which he calls the unattainable. It is an unreachable needs that individuals strive for but can never reach and therefore, they can never be fully and entirely satisfied (in Mead 2005). The lower level needs are called biogenetic needs (Schiffmann and Kanuk) or as Mead (2005) calls them the basic needs or deficiency needs (Daft 2008). Those needs are satisfied through external factors such as food, money, and praise from others. They are comparable with the Hiygiene Factors of Herzbergs Theory. The higher-level needs are the psychogenic (Schiffmann and Kanuk) or ego and self-actualization needs (Mead 2005) which are, unlike the basic needs, satisfied by internal outcomes e.g. sense of achievement and competence. Robbins and DeCenzo (2005) have pointed out that each level has to be satisfied before an individual moves up to the next level and another needs becomes relevant. If one need is satisfied, it is no longer motivating and needs are satisfied progressively (Mead 2005). Since for this work, mainly the safety needs are of relevance, the author will mainly emphasize on only those needs. However, also the physiological needs for shelter are important to consider. The Tourism Industry has to be very familiar with and understand those needs thoroughly. Fulfilling the biogenetic needs of customers will give the company a competitive advantage, since fulfilling those basic needs will motivate the consumer to strive for higher needs (psychogenic needs) and thus satisfy them more. Therefore, the Tourism Industry has to provide a safe environment for their tourists. Equity Theory Daft Hofstede Culture Definition Hofstede (1984)cited in Mead (2005): Culture is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human group from anotherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Culture, in this sense, includes systems of values; and values are among the building blocks of culture (p. 8). Out of this definition it can be concluded that culture is learned, and passed on from generation to generation, first from parents and families and then by institutions and members, and includes systems of values. According to Hofstede (1984) in Mead (2005) values are assumptions about how members within a culture group should behave. Those values are more intensively learned in young age as children learn more unconsciously and therefore, the learned values are deep-rooted. Furthermore, Mead (2005) points out that each social group has its unique culture that is different from the culture of other social groups, and they respond differently to similar situations. Furthermore, different culture groups have c onflicting and different expectations from their environment. Several Culture Models have been established over the years, e.g. the Kluckholm and Strotbeck Model in 1961 in Mead (2005), where they compared different cultures on the basis of the different orientations they have. The model of Hall (1976) in Mead (2005) distinguishes between low-context cultures that emphasizes on the verbal way of communicating and whose members need rather facts than interpretations and non-verbal communication such as in high-context cultures. Due to space limitations, in this work however, it will only be focused on Hofstedes Model as it fits the best for this topic because it includes the dimension of uncertainty avoidance which can be applied best to the needs for safety and security. The Hofstede Model has five Dimensions with which it distinguishes cultures. Those five Dimensions are Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism/Collectivism, Masculinity/Feminity, and Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation (Hofstede 2001). Power Distance is the distance between individuals from one level of the hierarchy to the other and the extent to which individuals accept or tolerate that power is not distributed equally. In cultures where the power distance is high, there is a big gap e.g. between a manager and his employees, and everybody knows their role and accepts it. In a low power distance culture, however, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Uncertainty avoidance represent the need to avoid uncertainties in the future or to be risk-taking. Cultures in which the need for uncertainty avoidance is high, are more anxious about the future, stabilize greater relationships and put a lot of energy into making plans for the future. In culture where the need for uncertainty avoidance is low, however, individuals are more willing to take risks and to change. Individualism versus collectivism shows if individuals have deep relationships with each other or rather not have emotional connections with others. In individualist cultures the individual identity is stressed and competition is expected. In collectivist cultures, on the other side, the group interest is more important that the individual interest and individuals are very loyal to group members. Masculinity versus Femininity is how the roles and values in a society are divided. In masculine cultures there is a big difference between sex roles. Those cultures are very competitive and career oriented. In feminine cultures, however, relationships and human contacts are very important. Long-term versus short-term orientation represents a temporal orientation towards life. Long-term oriented cultures value persistence and relationships are clearly ordered according to the status of individuals. Short-term oriented cultures value personal steadiness and stability, respect tradition, and exchange greetings, favors, and gifts. Diagram Perception of risks Perception Sirgy (1982) defines perception as the process by which an individual selects, organizes, and interprets information to create a meaningful picture of the world (in Kotler et. al, p. 213). Human Beings collect information through the five senses which are sight, smell, hearing, touch, and taste. People act differently based on their perception due to the fact that each person receives, organizes, and then interprets the incoming information in an individual way. That different people have different perceptions of the same object, situation etc., is because of the three perceptual processes. Selective Attention means that due to the massive amount of stimuli a person is exposed to every day, some stimuli will simply been screened out. Therefore, managers have to make their products noticeable to the consumers, by relating a stimuli to the current need, create stimuli that consumers anticipate, and establish high deviations compared to the normal size of the stimuli. Selective Distortion is the twisting of information into personal meaning so that it fits the preconceptions. Selective Retention happens when people only retain information that reinforce ones attitudes and beliefs and forget the rest (Kotler et. al, 2006). Glaesser (2003) defines risk as the term expected damage. It is calculated by the size of the damage times the probability that something will occur. If the tourist receives as risk as too much that it exceeds the tolerance level, the consumer will use risk reduction techniques (Kreilkamp, 1998; in Glaesser). This tolerance level is determined by the degree of credibility appearance of the tourism organization, the speed of its actions as well as the number of times a negative event occurred repetitiously (Kroeber-Riel, 1992; in Glaesser, 2003). It also has to be taken in account, that personal factors highly influence perception, which leads to a subjective risk assessment which includes quantitative risk factors, qualitative risk factors, and individual risk factors (Jungermann, 1991; in Glaesser, 2003). Quantitative risk factors influence a persons perception and increases if a negative event that has occurred in the past is remembered or can be imagined Differences Although these two factors are very important by talking about risk perception, the author will focus only on the individual risk factors, as those are more relevant for the work. Several personal determinants influence a persons perception such as age, gender, and education. The WTO (1994) states that female tourists have a higher risk perceptions than men. Young tourists between 18 and 24 years of age, however, perceive risk while travelling as less than older tourists (in Glaesser, 2003). Another important factor that has to be considered is the cultural aspect. Tourists from different cultural backgrounds have different risk perceptions, which could be explained due to different social, behavioral and development forms (Kemp, 1993; Sà ¶nmez and Graefe, 1998; in Glaesser, 2003). Hofstede !!!!!! Gee and Gain (1986) point out that tourists perceive risk more if a negative incident in the past has coincidentally affected someone out of their own culture/country. Furthermore, it has to be mentioned that terrorism in general does not lead to a decline in tourism demand. If the terrorism attacks, however, are directed direcly against tourists that lead to injuries and deaths, they would choose another destination (Wilkinson, 1993; Sà ¶nmez, 1998; in Glaesser, 2003). Usually higher than the real risk/danger that exists (Brayshaw) Risk Perception is usually not logical, because it is influenced through the media. (Santana) Amateur videos or colorful pictures. Higher change of being violated or having an accident at home than during the holiday/vacation. (Santana) Spill-over effect: association of one incident with the whole region or country (Santana) Tourism industry: Sectors within are interrelated and dependent (transportation, exchange rates, political and social structure, weather, etc. If one varies or changes negatively, it affects the others. (Santana) Since tourism destinations heavily depend on tourists, they have to address the heavily fluctuating demand that arises due to the changing perception of the riskiness of the destination (Meheux Parker, 2006). Destinations that are perceived as a threat to their safety or well-being of the travelers, will be avoided (Beirman, 2003). Holden (2008) stresses this further by saying that perceived risks can be so powerful that tourists would even prevent going to a destination and choosing another destination instead that appears to be more pleasant and safe (Henderson, 2007). Timothy (2006) points out an exception by saying that some tourists deliberately travel to risky destinations out of curiosity. Furthermore, it is said that most tourists are not primarily concerned with being caught in a disaster, especially if a long time has passed since the last disaster or incident. Summing up, it can be said that tourists are prepared and willing to accept a certain amount of risk. However, if the risk perception exceeds the tolerance level, the destination will be substituted. RM According to van Waldbeck à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾[r]isk assessment is a key stage in planning for crisis, involving the anticipation of what might go wrong and identification of the reasons for divergences from expectations (2005 cited in Henderson, 2007: p. 3). As a tool, marketers can continuously promote the safety in risky destinations, as this can make the tourist neglecting the threat (Henderson, 2007). Hudson (2008) suggests a hurricane guarantee that allows the tourists to rebook their vacation. Huan et. al (2004) on the other side argue that instead of building confidence, stressing the safety of a destination and safety plans have a negative impact on the tourists image of a destination and could negatively impact the buying decision. Concerning the question, how big the time span between an incident and a restart of marketing the destination, the WTO WMO (1998) suggest that this decision has to be made responsively concerning the safety instead of the profit-making (in Henderson, 2007). Definition of Crisis . (Glaesser) Definition of Crisis Management Crisis Management includes changes of tasks as response to a crisis. (Glaesser) When thinking of Tourism, one most commonly thinks of enjoyment, relaxation, and safety. On the other side, however, disasters bring about fear, stress, anxiety, trauma, and panic (Santana, 2003). Those two sides go hand in hand because crisis have always been and always will be part of tourism operations. Thus, it affects all parties that are part of the Tourism System e.g. the tourist, destination, communities, tourism companies, regulators, promoters (Santana, 2003). Faulkner defines a disaster as [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] where an enterprise is confronted with sudden unpredictable catastrophic changes over which it has little control (Faulkner, 2001: p. 136, cited in Ritchie, 2004). According to Glaesser (2003) , a crisis is an unusual and unwanted situation that demands an immediate response due to it seriousness. Differences between disasters and crisis Crisis describes a situation where the root cause of the event lies internal of an organization and is due to unskilled or ineffective management practices and the inability or unwillingness to adapt to an ongoing change (Faulkner, 2001). E.g. Chernobyl, A crisis could be to some extent prevented, but standard procedures often redefine the abnormal as normal and therefore, not adapt to change (Booth, 1993). A crisis, however, can also bring positive things as it acts as a turning point for better or for worse (Fink, 1986, in Faulkner, 2001). Pos. outcomes: innovation, recognition of new markets), totally new and more effective configuration might emerge. (Chaos Theory) A disaster on the other side is a situation or event that is unpredictable and over which organizations or enterprises has little control (Faulkner, 2001). E.g. eathquakes, hurricanes, tsunamis. Unfortunately, some warning signals of disasters that are about to happen are ignored -> leave communities unprepared (Faulkner, 2001). Burton et al. (1978) in Faulkner (2001): To sum up, the global toll of natural disaster rises at least as fast as the increase in population and material wealth, and probably faster. We live in an increasingly complex world and this has contributed to making us more crisis or disaster prone (Richardson, 1994) Daft (2008) points out that an organization is confronted with small crises on a daily basis such as data loss, a fire etc. Bigger crises of intentional evil such as bombings and kidnappings, or natural disasters such as hurricanes and earthquakes continue to increase. Henderson (2007) states that disasters such as storms, floods, and droughts, will increase in its frequency due to extreme weather conditions, because of the ongoing climate change. This statement is supported by EM-DATs (2010) natural disaster trend which shows clearly that disasters have occurred more frequently since the beginning of 1900. This lets assume, that disasters will even increase more in the future. Graphic EM-DAT Community responses to crisis include the shock state, where individuals feel helpless and disoriented; the denial and defensive retreat (to reach back to already established safety solutions or to go somewhere else); the acknowledgement state whereby the change is accepted; and the adaption stage in which the community copes with the crisis and learns from it for the future. (Arnold, 1980, in Booth, 1993, in Faulkner, 2001) Degree to which companies work together and break down institutional barriers !!!! (because of inadequate resources -> collaboration; has to be planned before (Granot, 1997)) Fig Faulkner crisis and disasters Although there is no generally accepted definition of crisis management in the literature (Santana, 2003), it can be said that in order to respond to a crisis, organizations have to take actions accordingly by changing their tasks and processes (Glaesser, 2003). Since it can never be known in advance if and what type of crisis will occur, Organizations have to be prepared through planning for the worst case. According to Santana, this should be done through proper advance planning and establishing frameworks, because only then it is possible to cope with uncertainties. Brownwell (1990) stresses that there is even a bigger need for a good crisis management in the tourism industry since it is one of the most vulnerable industries. Fink (1986): the media plays an important role during the disaster management strategies and it has the power make the difference between whether or not a difficult situation evolves into a disaster (Fink, 1986). The media can be very useful by informing the community about warnings and to provide information during the recovery stage. However, the media often spreads false information and thus, can hinder the emergency operations by distracting the emergency personnel. In addition, the media also exaggerates in order to create panic and bring people to spend money e.g. in the form of panic buys before a possible hurricane. Due to the exaggeration and rumors of the media, the impact of a disaster in the tourism industry on the market has an unproportional impact to the actual natural disruptive effect (Cassedy, 1991; Murphy Bayley, 1989; Drabek, 1992). Drabek (1995) analyzed that tourists and tourist destinations in general are more vulnerable to disaster than other people/industries/etc. A reason for this could be that the most appealing and popular tourist destinations are tropical places where hurricanes, avalanches or volcanic eruptions are usual (Murphey and Bayley 1989). Since common targets for terrorists, such as embassies, are made less attractive due to increased safety measure, tourists became the new targets (Lehrman, 1986). Furthermore, during a disaster, tourists are always more independent and vulnerable than the community, as they are not as familiar with the local dangers (Burby and Wagner 1996). Cassedy (1991) states that only a few companies have actual disaster emergency plans in their business plans, and in case they do so it is just made for one type of hazard (Drabek, 1995). In general, one can say that the bigger tourism enterprises are better prepared than smaller enterprises (Faulkner). According to Beirman (2003), the principles of Crisis Management are coordination, collaboration, communication, and commitment. Those principles are a good attempt, however, they are not sufficient, as during an unpredictable disaster there is no time for à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Stages Faulkner Preparation Kotler et. al (2006) state that if there are precautions in place, negative events can be diminished or prevented from occurring. Therefore, possible crisis that have a chance of occurring should be determined and develop plans and worst case scenarios. These plans have to be communicated to all employees so that everybody knows their tasks and expected behavior in case of emergency. cascaded strategic priority profile'(CSPP) (Heath, 1995, in Faulkner, 2001) Questionable, because an organizations usual activities and policies are not applicable during the situation of a crisis. (Huque, 1998, in Faulkner, 2001) e.g. companies with high chain of command would have a too long response rate but need to react much faster in crisis situations. Other restrictions are bureaucratic structures and low empowerment. Other problems: communication failures, lack of available resources (Heath, 1995, in Faulkner, 2001) Kotler et. al (2006) suggest that a good crisis management focuses more on the communication and less on the crisis. During training sessions, managers should be asked a set of possible challenging questions that they may have to answer by guests or the media. Prevention It is very important to implement early and warning systems, and thus, create awareness in the tourists mind of potential danger. Ritchie argues that more importance should be given to reduction and readiness than to response and recovery, and tourists rely on the Tour Operator to provide them with the necessary information (which is very important as tourists do not have the knowledge about hazard issues, as they are in an unfamiliar place (Johnston et. al (2007 $). Therefore, a proactive management is necessary, in order to provide the tourists beforehand with the necessary information and precautions (Henderson, 2007), so that tourists know the dangers that exists and adjust their behaviors accordingly ( Ritchie Crouch, 1997; in Glaesser, 2003). It is not possible to eliminate every danger or threat; this is especially the case with natural disasters, such as earthquakes, tsunamis or hurricanes. Coburn (1992), however, states that the destruction can be diminished by building hotels etc. in a more solid way which make them more resistant but also require a higher investment. Warning Signals Warning signals could be of any kind. Kotler et. al (2006) suggests that customer complaints, or strangers that walk around the property should be reported by employees to the security in order to prevent risks and crimes. Furthermore, in the internet a manager can read in chats or forums what former customers say and think about their property and thus, erase the failures. Damage Limitation As mentioned above, communication is very important for a good crisis management. It can also reduce the negative publicity, if there is a good communication with the press in place (Kotler et. al 2006). A spokesperson should be chosen who should communicate the facts to the media, give timely updates, and thus keep the press updated. It is pointed out, that by talking to the media, the spokesperson or manager should never use the term no comment as it creates suspicion. According to Daft (2008), leaders should develop four communication skills. First of all, they need to stay calm and listen harder, by absorbing peoples fears and uncertainties. They should give comfort, inspiration, and hope by showing optimism. Secondly, they should be visible in order to show that someone is in control. They need to step out immediately and respond to followers and public concerns. Furthermore, it is very important that the spokesperson always tells the truth and, thus, only communicates facts. As a result of this, rumors will be reduced as well. Last but not least, a vision for the future has to be communicated so that people do not lose hope, keep going and the rebuilding process is faster. Recovery stage In order for a destination to recover, appropriate equipment, time and monetary strength is needed. Especially during natural catastrophes, a region is unable to help itself, and therefore, needs interregional or international help and assistance in form of machinery and donations (Glaesser, 2006). Furthermore, it has to be decided who has to invest financially in rebuilding the destinations additionally to the donations. In some cases, the government pays and burdens the expenses in form of taxes on the community, stakeholders are made responsible, the insurance, or the suppliers of the tourism industry. (?) Another question is, what will be restored first. Most stakeholders demand that they are helped first, however, it is more important to rebuild the infrastructure first and this will benefit the community and the tourism industry, and thus, generate revenue which will be needed again for further reparations (Faulkner and Vikulov, 2001; Huang and Min, 2002, in Sharpley, R. 2005). The time a destination needs in order to recover and bring services back to normal depends on how well the market communication had been integrated (Faulkner, 2001) but is always influenced by the interest of the stakeholder concerning the speed of the recreation, the character of a destination, and how sever the devastation is. Learning Stage To sum up, by having a proper Crisis/ Disaster Management System in place, many hazards could either be avoided or minimize their impacts (Faulkner, 2001).

Classical Conditioning Essay -- essays research papers

Green Light Go, Red Light Stop   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Classical conditioning shapes many of society’s common, everyday tasks. Whether we know it or not, many actions we do numerous times a day are a direct result of classical conditioning. To better understand why we act the way we do in society, classical conditioning must be defined and described.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Classical conditioning is defined as: a process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a similar or related response. Discovered by Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a form of learning. Pavlov revealed this trait when experimenting with dog’s amounts of saliva in response to meat. He started noticing that after many repetitions, the dogs were salivating before the meat was even introduced. Pavlov concluded that some other stimulus that was repetitively associated with the meat was triggering the salivation. This simple concept describes how many actions are carried out in society today.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many times classical conditioning is not something that is purposefully done, but rather an incidental outcome. Conditioning may take a variable amount of time to occur. For example, humans are not born associating red with stop. As we grow, and ride in cars, we begin to consciously or subconsciously figure out that when a stoplight is red-you stop. Stop signs are red, stoplight... Classical Conditioning Essay -- essays research papers Green Light Go, Red Light Stop   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Classical conditioning shapes many of society’s common, everyday tasks. Whether we know it or not, many actions we do numerous times a day are a direct result of classical conditioning. To better understand why we act the way we do in society, classical conditioning must be defined and described.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Classical conditioning is defined as: a process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a similar or related response. Discovered by Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a form of learning. Pavlov revealed this trait when experimenting with dog’s amounts of saliva in response to meat. He started noticing that after many repetitions, the dogs were salivating before the meat was even introduced. Pavlov concluded that some other stimulus that was repetitively associated with the meat was triggering the salivation. This simple concept describes how many actions are carried out in society today.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many times classical conditioning is not something that is purposefully done, but rather an incidental outcome. Conditioning may take a variable amount of time to occur. For example, humans are not born associating red with stop. As we grow, and ride in cars, we begin to consciously or subconsciously figure out that when a stoplight is red-you stop. Stop signs are red, stoplight...

Learning theories Essay

Primary research consists of the collection of original primary data. It is often undertaken after the researcher has gained some insight into the issue by reviewing secondary research or by analyzing previously collected primary data. It can be accomplished through various methods, including questionnaires and telephone interviews in market research, or experiments and direct observations in the physical sciences, amongst others. Secondary Research: Secondary research (also known as desk research) involves the summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing research rather than primary research, where data is collected from, for example, research subjects or experiments. The term is widely used in medical research and in market research. The principal methodology in medical secondary research is the systematic review, commonly using meta-analytic statistical techniques, although other methods of synthesis, like realist reviews and meta-narrative[2] reviews, have been developed in recent years. Such secondary research uses the primary research of others typically in the form of research publications and reports. In a market research context, secondary research is taken to include the re-use by a second party of any data collected by a first party or parties. In archaeology and landscape history, desk research is contrasted with fieldwork. Primary Research Vs Secondary Research One of the major differences between the two is that primary research is conducted with the help of primary sources available where as secondary research is conducted on the basis of some data collected from someone who had got it from the sources. Primary research is expensive to conduct since it involves primary sources. But secondary research is not much expensive as primary. Another major difference between the two is that primary research is much more time consuming as compared to secondary research. As a matter of fact the results found by the primary research are usually to have better quality than those from the conduct of the secondary research. Primary research is also usually detailed and elaborated since it is supposed to be both qualitative as well as quantitative. On the other hand data pertaining to secondary research is usually not much detailed and elaborated since it involves indirect uses. Primary research is done with a lot of hard work and dedication. On the hand secondary research is usually presented with a number of data and records. These are usually taken from books, periodicals published by governmental organizations, statistical data, annual reports and case study ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOUR. Organizational behavior is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structures have on behavior within an organization for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving an organization’s effectiveness. It is an interdisciplinary field that includes sociology, psychology, communication, and management; and it complements the academic studies of organizational theory (which is focused on organizational and intra-organizational topics) and human resource studies (which is more applied and business-oriented). It may also be referred to as organizational studies or organizational science. The field has its roots in industrial and organizational psychology. 1 Organizational studies encompass the study of organizations from multiple viewpoints, methods, and levels of analysis. For instance, one textbook divides these multiple viewpoints into three perspectives: modern, symbolic, and postmodern. Another traditional distinction, present especially in  American academia, is between the study of â€Å"micro† organizational behaviour — which refers to individual and group dynamics in an organizational setting — and â€Å"macro† strategic management and organizational theory which studies whole organizations and industries, how they adapt, and the strategies, structures and contingencies that guide them. To this distinction, some scholars have added an interest in â€Å"meso† scale structures – power, culture, and the networks of individuals and i. e. ronit units in organizations — and â€Å"field† level analysis which study how whole populations of organizations interact. Whenever people interact in organizations, many factors come into play. Modern organizational studies attempt to understand and model these factors. Like all modernist social sciences, organizational studies seek to control, predict, and explain. There is some controversy over the ethics of controlling workers’ behavior, as well as the manner in which workers are treated (see Taylor’s scientific management approach compared to the human relations movement of the 1940s). As such, organizational behaviour or OB (and its cousin, Industrial psychology) have at times been accused of being the scientific tool of the powerful. Those accusations notwithstanding, OB can play a major role in organizational development, enhancing organizational performance, as well as individual and group performance/satisfaction/commitment. One of the main goals of organizational theorists is, according to Simms (1994), â€Å"to revitalize organizational theory and develop a better conceptualization of organizational life. † An organizational theorist should carefully consider levels assumptions being made in theory, and is concerned to help managers and administrators. 1. INTRODUCTION TO LEARNING. The process of learning has great value for enriching human life in all spheres of life. All activities and behaviors that make personal, social and economic life peaceful and pleasurable are learned. Learning definitely affects human behaviour in organizations. There is little organizational behaviour that is not either directly or indirectly affected by learning. For example, a worker’s skill, a manager’s attitude, a supervisor’s motivation and a secretary’s mode of dress are all learned. Our ability to learn is also important to organizations preoccupied with controlled  performance. Employees have to know what they are to do, how they are to do it, how well they are expected to do it, and the consequences of achieving good or poor levels of performance. Thus, learning theories have influenced a range of organizational practices concerning: 1. The induction of new recruits 2. The design and delivery of job training 3. The design of payment systems- 4. How supervisors evaluate and provide feedback on employee performance 5. The design of forms of learning organization The concept of the learning organization became popular during the 1990s. The learning organization is a configuration of structures and policies which encourage individual learning, with individual and organizational benefits. The organization itself can also be regarded as an entity which is capable of learning independently of its members. Knowledge has thus become a more important asset for many organizations than materials and products. 1. 1 WHAT IS LEARNING Learning covers virtually all behaviors and is concerned with the acquisition of knowledge, attitudes and values, emotional responses (such as happiness and fear), and motor skills (such as operating a computer keyboard or riding a bicycle). We can learn incorrect facts or pick up bad habits in the same way that we learn correct facts and acquire good habits. It refers to a spectrum of changes that occur as a result of one’s experience. Learning may be defined as â€Å"any relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioral potential produced by experience†. It may be noted here that some behavioral changes take place due to the use of drugs, alcohol, or fatigue. Such changes are temporary. They are not considered learning. Therefore, changes are due to practice and experience, and relatively permanent, alone are illustrative of learning. In the definition given above, it is clear that the process of learning has certain distinctive characteristics. These are: First, learning always involves some kind of experience. These experiences may be derived from inside the body or they may be sensory, arising outside. The task of inferring whether or not learning has taken place may be an obvious one, but observable behaviour may not always reveal learning. It is important to distinguish between two types of learning. Procedural learning or ‘knowing how’, concerns your ability to carry out particular skilled actions such as riding a horse. Declarative learning or `knowing that’, concerns your store of factual knowledge such as an understanding of the history of our use of the horse. Second, the behavioral changes that take place due to learning are relatively permanent. Behaviour can be changed temporarily by many other factors and in ways which we would not like to call learning. These other factors include growing up or maturation (in children), aging (in adults), drugs, alcohol and fatigue. For example, you must have noticed that whenever one takes a sedative or drug or alcohol, one’s behaviour changes. Each one of these drugs affect physiological functions leading to certain changes in behaviour. Such changes are temporary in nature and disappear as the effect of drugs wears out. Third, learning cannot be observed directly. We can only observe a person’s behaviour and draw the inference from it that learning has taken place. A distinction has to be made between learning and performance. Performance is evaluated by some quantitative and some qualitative measures of output. For example, the number of calls a sales representative makes to customers or the quality of a manager’s chairing of a committee meeting. But, learning acts as a constraint on the outcome. Normally, we cannot perform any better than we have learned, though there are occasions when the right motivational disposition and a supportive environment help to raise the level of performance. Researchers have found that increased motivation may improve our performance up to a point but, beyond this, increased motivation may cause a lowering of the level of performance. 2. PRECONDITIONS FOR LEARNING Two preconditions for learning will increase the success of those who are to participate in such programs: employee readiness and motivation. The condition known as employee readiness refers to both maturational and experiential factors in the employee’s background. Prospective employees should be screened to determine that they have the background knowledge or the skills necessary for learning what will be presented to them. Recognition of individual differences in readiness is as important in an organization as it is in any other learning situation. It is often desirable to group individuals according to their capacity to learn, as determined by scores from tests, or to provide a different or extended type of instruction for those who need it. The other precondition for learning is that the employee be properly motivated. That is, for optimum learning the employee must recognize the need for acquiring new information or for having new skills; and a desire to learn as learning progresses must be maintained. While people at work are motivated by certain common needs, they differ from one another in the relative importance of these needs at any given time. For example, new recruits often have an intense desire for advancement, and have established specific goals for career progression. Objectives that are clearly defined will produce increased motivation in the learning process when instructional objectives are related to individual needs. 3. SOME PREREQUISITES FOR LEARNING After employees have been placed in the learning situation, their readiness and motivation should be assessed further. In addition, facilitators should understand the basic learning issues discussed below. 3. 1 MEANINGFUL MATERIALS In accordance with adult learning theories, the material to be learned should be organized in as meaningful a manner as possible. It should be arranged so that each successive experience builds upon preceding ones so that the employee is able to integrate the experiences into a useable pattern of knowledge and skills. The material should have face validity. 3. 2 REINFORCEMENT Anything which strengthens the employee’s response is called reinforcement. It may be in the form of approval from the instructor or facilitator or the feeling of accomplishment that follows the performance; or it may simply be confirmation by a software program that the employee’s response was correct. It is generally most effective if it occurs immediately after a task has been performed. Behaviour modification, or a technique that operates on the principle that behaviour that is rewarded positively (reinforced) will be exhibited more frequently in the future, whereas behaviour that is penalized or unrewarded will decrease in frequency, is often used for such purposes 3. 3 TRANSFER OF KNOWLEDGE Unless what is learned in the development activity is applicable to what is required on the job, the effort will have been of little value. The ultimate effectiveness of learning, therefore, is to be found in the answer to the question: ‘To what extent does what is learned transfer to the job? ’ Helpful approaches include ensuring that conditions in the development program conform as closely as possible to those on the job, and coaching employees on the principles for applying to the job the behaviors which they have learned. Furthermore, once formal instruction has been completed, the supervisor must ensure that the work environment supports, reinforces and rewards the employee for applying the new skills or knowledge. 3. 4 KNOWLEDGE OF PROGRESS As an employee’s development progresses, motivation may be maintained and even increased by providing knowledge of progress. Progress, as determined by tests and other records, may be plotted on a chart, commonly referred to as a learning curve. Exhibit 8. 9 is an example of a learning curve that is common in the acquisition of many job skills. 4. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING A. Distributed Learning: Another factor that determines the effectiveness of learning is the amount of time given to practice in one session. Should training or development be undertaken in five two-hour periods or in 10 one-hour periods? It has been found in most cases that spacing out the activities will result in more rapid learning and more permanent retention. This is the principle of distributed learning. Since the most efficient distribution will vary according to the type and complexity of the task to be learned, it is desirable to make reference to the rapidly growing body of research in this area when an answer is required for a specific learning situation. B. Whole v. Part Learning: Most jobs and tasks can be broken down into parts that lend themselves to further analysis. The analysis of the most effective manner for completing each part then provides a basis for giving specific instruction. Airline flight attendant jobs, for example, involve a combination of mechanistic (specific tasks that follow a prescribed routine), and organic (tasks that involve decision-making and individualized responses) duties, which are best learnt separately, and then combined to form the whole job responsibility. Thus, the prescribed takeoff and landing announcements, and formal safety procedures, are supplemented with separate learning activities about how to deal with difficult passengers or how to cope with food supply problems. In evaluating whole versus part learning, it is necessary to consider the nature of the task to be learned. If the task can be broken down successfully for part learning, it should probably be taught as a unit. C. Practice and Repetition: It is those things we do daily that become a part of our repertoire of skills. Employees need frequent opportunities to practice their job tasks in the manner in which they will ultimately be expected to perform them. The individual who is being taught to operate a machine should have an opportunity to practice on it. Similarly, the supervisor who is being taught how to train should have supervised practice in training D. Multiple Sense Learning: It has long been acknowledged that the use of multiple senses increases learning. Smith and Delahaye state that about 80 per cent of what a person perceives is obtained visually, 11 per cent by hearing and 9 per cent by the other senses combined. It follows that in order to maximize learning, multiple senses of the employees, particularly sight and hearing, should be engaged. Visual aids are therefore emphasized as being important to the learning and development activities. 5. THEORIES OF LEARNING OR APPROCHES TO LEARNING 1. BEHAVIORLIST APPROACH Behaviorism, as a learning theory, can be traced back to Aristotle, whose essay â€Å"Memory† focused on association being made between events such as lightning and thunder. Other philosophers that followed Aristotle’s thoughts are Hobbs (1650), Hume (1740), Brown (1820), Bain (1855) and Ebbinghause (1885) (Black, 1995). Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner later developed the theory in more detail. Watson is the theorist credited with coining the term â€Å"behaviorism†. The school of adult learning theory that adopted these principles has become known as the school of behaviorism, which saw learning as a straightforward process of response to stimuli. The provision of a reward or reinforcement is believed to strengthen the response and therefore result in changes in behavior – the test, according to this school of thought, is as to whether learning had occurred. Spillane (2002) states, â€Å"the behaviorist perspective, associated with B. F. Skinner, holds that the mind at work cannot be observed, tested, or understood; thus, behaviorists are concerned with actions (behavior) as the sites of knowing, teaching, and learning†. The hypothesis behind behaviorlist learning theories is that all learning occurs when behavior is influenced and changed by external factors. Behavioralism disregards any notion that there may be an internal component to man’s learning. Grippin and Peters (1984) emphasize in regard to an individual’s subjugation to external stimulus as a determinant of response (i. e. , behavior). Contiguity is understood as the timing of events that is necessary to bring about behavioral change, while reinforcement refers to the probability that repeated positive or negative events will produce an anticipated change in behavior. 1. (A) Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) Classical conditioning is a reflexive or automatic type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. Originators and Key Contributors: First described by Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), Russian physiologist, in 1903, and studied in infants by John B. Watson (1878-1958). Several types of learning exist. The most basic form is associative learning, i. e. , making a new association between events in the environment. There are two forms of associative learning: classical conditioning (made famous by Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with dogs) and operant conditioning. Pavlov’s Dogs In the early twentieth century, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov did Nobel prize-winning work on digestion. While studying the role of saliva in dogs’ digestive processes, he stumbled upon a phenomenon he labeled â€Å"psychic reflexes. † While an accidental discovery, he had the foresight to see the importance of it. Pavlov’s dogs, restrained in an experimental chamber, were presented with meat powder and they had their saliva collected via a surgically implanted tube in their saliva glands. Over time, he noticed that his dogs who begin salivation before the meat powder was even presented, whether it was by the presence of the handler or merely by a clicking noise produced by the device that distributed the meat powder. Fascinated by this finding, Pavlov paired the meat powder with various stimuli such as the ringing of a bell. After the meat powder and bell (auditory stimulus) were presented together several times, the bell was used alone. Pavlov’s dogs, as predicted, responded by salivating to the sound of the bell (without the food). The bell began as a neutral stimulus (i. e. the bell itself did not produce the dogs’ salivation). However, by pairing the bell with the stimulus that did produce the salivation response, the bell was able to acquire the ability to trigger the salivation response. Pavlov therefore demonstrated how stimulus-response bonds (which some consider as the basic building blocks of learning) are formed. He dedicated much of the rest of his career further exploring this finding. In technical terms, the meat powder is considered an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the dog’s salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutral stimulus until the dog learns to associate the bell with food. Then the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the conditioned response (CR) of salivation after repeated pairings between the bell and food. John B. Watson: Early Classical Conditioning with Humans John B. Watson further extended Pavlov’s work and applied it to human beings. In 1921, Watson studied Albert, an 11 month old infant child. The goal of the study was to condition Albert to become afraid of a white rat by pairing the white rat with a very loud, jarring noise (UCS). At first, Albert showed no sign of fear when he was presented with rats, but once the rat was repeatedly paired with the loud noise (UCS), Albert developed a fear of rats. It could be said that the loud noise (UCS) induced fear (UCR). The implications of Watson’s experiment suggested that classical conditioning could cause some phobias in humans. 1. (B) GOMS Model (Card, Moran, Newell) The GOMS Model is a human information processing model that predicts what skilled users will do in seemingly unpredictable situations. Originators and proponents: Card, Moran and Newell in 1983; Bonnie John et al. This model is the general term for a family of human information processing techniques that attempt to model and predict user behavior. Typically used by software designers, a person’s behavior is analyzed in terms of four components: Goals – something that the person wants to accomplish. Can be high level to low level. Operators – basic perceptual, cognitive, or motor actions used to accomplish goals, or actions that the software allows user to make. Methods – procedures (sequences) of sub-goals and operators that can accomplish a goal Selection rules – personal rules users follow in deciding what method to use in a circumstance 1. (C) Operant Conditioning (Skinner) A behaviorist theory based on the fundamental idea that behaviors that are reinforced will tend to continue, while behaviors that are punished will eventually end. Originators and Key Contributors: B. F. Skinner, built upon Ivan Pavlov’s theories of classical conditioning. Operant conditioning can be described as a process that attempts to modify behavior through the use of positive and negative reinforcement. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence. Example 1: Parents rewarding a child’s excellent grades with candy or some other prize. Example 2: A schoolteacher awards points to those students who are the most calm and well-behaved. Students eventually realize that when they voluntarily become quieter and better behaved, that they earn more points. Example 3: A form of reinforcement (such as food) is given to an animal every time the animal (for example, a hungry lion) presses a lever. The term â€Å"operant conditioning† originated by the behaviorist B. F. Skinner, who believed that one should focus on the external, observable causes of behavior (rather than try to unpack the internal thoughts and motivations) Reinforcement comes in two forms: positive and negative. Positive and negative reinforces Positive reinforces are favorable events or outcomes that are given to the individual after the desired behavior. This may come in the form of praise, rewards, etc. Negative reinforces typically are characterized by the removal of an undesired or unpleasant outcome after the desired behavior. A response is strengthened as something considered negative is removed. The goal in both of these cases of reinforcement is for the behavior to increase. Positive and negative punishment Punishment, in contrast, is when the increase of something undesirable attempts to cause a decrease in the behavior that follows. Positive punishment is when unfavorable events or outcomes are given in order to weaken the response that follows. Negative punishment is characterized by when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a undesired behavior occurs. The goal in both of these cases of punishment is for a behavior to decrease. What is the difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning? In operant conditioning, a voluntary response is then followed by a reinforcing stimulus. In this way, the voluntary response (e. g. studying for an exam) is more likely to be done by the individual. In contrast, classical conditioning is when a stimulus automatically triggers an involuntary response. 1. (D) Socialist Learning Theory (Bandura). Bandura’s Social Learning Theory posits that people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation. Originator: Albert Bandura People learn through observing others’ behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors. â€Å"Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action. † (Bandura). Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences. Necessary conditions for effective modeling: 1. Attention — various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid. Includes distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. One’s characteristics (e. g. sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement) affect attention. 2. Retention — remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal 3. Reproduction — reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and self-observation of reproduction. 4. Motivation — having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such asA past (i. e. traditional behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced model) Bandura believed in â€Å"reciprocal determinism†, that is, the world and a person’s behavior cause each other, while behaviorism essentially states that one’s environment causes one’s behavior, Bandura,who was studying adolescent aggression, found this too simplistic, and so in addition he suggested that behavior causes environment as well. Later, Bandura soon considered personality as an interaction between three components: the environment, behavior, and one’s psychological processes (one’s ability to entertain images in minds and language). 2. CONSTURCTIVIST Constructivism is a synthesis of multiple theories diffused into one form. It is the assimilation of both behaviorialist and cognitive ideals. The â€Å"constructivist stance maintains that learning is a process of constructing meaning; it is how people make sense of their experience†. This is a combination effect of using a person’s cognitive abilities and insight to understand their environment. This coincides especially well with current adult learning theory. This concept is easily translated into a self-directed learning style, where the individual has the ability to take in all the information and the environment of a problem and learn. Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview posits that learning is an active, constructive process. The learner is an information constructor. People actively construct or create their own subjective representations of objective reality. New information is linked to prior knowledge, thus mental representations are subjective. Originators and important contributors: Vygotsky, Piaget, Dewey, Vico, Rorty, Bruner Constructivism A reaction to didactic approaches such as behaviorism and programmed instruction, constructivism states that learning is an active, contextualized process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it. Knowledge is constructed based on personal experiences and hypotheses of the environment. Learners continuously test these hypotheses through social negotiation. Each person has a different interpretation and construction of knowledge process. The learner is not a blank slate (tabula rasa) but brings past experiences and cultural factors to a situation. Vygotsky’s theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. It asserts three major themes: Major themes: 1. Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: â€Å"Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (inter-psychological) and then inside the child (intra-psychological). † 2. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers. 3. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone. Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context in which they act and interact in shared experiences (Crawford, 1996). According to Vygotsky, humans use tools that develop from a culture, such as speech and writing, to mediate their social environments. Initially children develop these tools to serve solely as social functions, ways to communicate needs. Vygotsky believed that the internalization of these tools led to higher thinking skills. 3. COGNITIVISM The cognitivist paradigm essentially argues that the â€Å"black box† of the mind should be opened and understood. The learner is viewed as an information processor (like a computer). Originators and important contributors: Merrill -Component Display Theory (CDT), Reigeluth (Elaboration Theory), Gagne, Briggs, Wager, Bruner (moving toward cognitive constructivism), Schank (scripts), Scandura (structural learning) The cognitivist revolution replaced behaviorism in 1960s as the dominant paradigm. Cognitivism focuses on the inner mental activities – opening the â€Å"black box† of the human mind is valuable and necessary for understanding how people learn. Mental processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem-solving need to be explored. Knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic mental constructions. Learning is defined as change in a learner’s schemata. A response to behaviorism, people are not â€Å"programmed animals† that merely respond to environmental stimuli; people are rational beings that require active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence of thinking. Changes in behavior are observed, but only as an indication of what is occurring in the learner’s head. Cognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as computer: information comes in, is being processed, and leads to certain outcomes. 3. 1 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY Gestalt psychology or gestaltism (German: Gestalt – â€Å"essence or shape of an entity’s complete form†) is a theory of mind and brain of the Berlin School; the operational principle of gestalt psychology is that the brain is holistic, parallel, and analog, with self-organizing tendencies.

Watchmen

The Mysterious Building My favorite short story was the â€Å"Sonata for Harp and Bicycle† written by Josh Alike. The story was taking place during Halloween In London and about this guy Jason that wants to know why everyone has to leave work by 5 o'clock every night. Only certain people know why. MISS Golden (Bernice), a friend of Jason, knows why but can't tell anyone. One night, Jason went inside the building using the fire escape to see what goes on in the building after dark. Jason went through doors and heard a bell that was ringing quietly and then was silenced. Then Jason heard this person whispering â€Å"Daisy, Daisy† (Ms.Bell). Jason said that he wasn't Daisy and the voice said he was on private property and he shouldn't be here. This person was pushing Jason to the fire escape. Jason ran down the fire escape as fast as he could. The next day Miss Golden saw Season's hair and it was a stippled silver color. Miss Golden asked Jason if he went into the building last night after everyone left. Jason said â€Å"Tell me the true story. † This guy William Heron, the wailing watchmen, had a crush on Ms. Bell. Ms. Bell would each people the harp, and at eleven dock each night they have a picnic supper.One night, the watchman was going to propose to her but she never showed up. Ms. Bell was using a graham bell to wake herself up at ten to meet him and that night the bell failed and she missed meeting William. So MISS Golden and Jason thought they can get the watchmen and Ms. Bell back together because if you see the watchmen you have five days to live. One night they went into the building to get them back together. They woke up Ms. Bell to go meet the watchmen. The watchmen and Ms. Bell got together at last. Miss Golden and Jason Jumped out of the fire escape together. Sonata for Harp and Bicycle† is my favorite short story because of suspense, the setting and symbolism of Ms. Bell and the watchmen. Suspense is one of the literary elements that helped makes this story a little scary. It was suspenseful when everyone had to leave the building by 5 clock pm. I wondered what Jason Is going to find in the building when he went in there after hours. Is Jason going to live for five days after he left the building? A suspenseful moment Is when â€Å"Jason opened a door at random; then another, offices lay everywhere about him, empty and forbidding† (50).Jason thinks he shouldn't be in there. Everything seemed like people just left but he could still feel a presence of someone there. The setting is another part that is my favorite literary element that helped make this story come to life. The setting was in London during Halloween at night. Jason and Miss Golden went down the fire escape ten minutes before midnight. Then Jason said â€Å"We don't want our evening to be spoiled by the thought of a curse hanging over us† (56). Jason wants to make sure the curse will not come true.Jason and Miss golden Jum ped out of the building so they don't have to deal with the curse If It ever comes true. Lastly, symbolism Is one of the literary elements that helped make this story unique. The flowers mean love. The harp means Ms. Bell Is around playing/teaching her harp. The bicycle means the watchmen is around somewhere. The watchmen supper every night at eleven† (52). They had a very strong relationship. Whoever you are, you are always unique. Suspense, setting and symbolism of Ms. Bell and the watchmen made â€Å"Sonata for Harp and Bicycle my favorite short story.This story was kind of scary but also a love story. Suspense, setting and symbolism all fit in this story because they all have their important parts. I think Miss Golden and Jason should have lived instead of going down the fire escape. I liked how the watchmen and Ms. Bell had different talents. I also think that the book should have went on and said what the watchmen and Ms. Bell did after the watchmen propose to her. This is my favorite short story because I think it had a lot of different parts when suspense came in so you want to keep on reading.